What are non-state actors in cross-border cooperation and how can they contribute or complicate cooperation?

• A. They have no impact on cross-border cooperation and are generally ignored
• B. Only governments participate in cross-border cooperation
• C. Non-state actors always complicate and undermine cooperation
• D. NGOs, private sector, and civil society can contribute expertise and resources but may have divergent agendas and accountability challenges

Answer: (D)

Non-state actors in cross-border cooperation are entities outside the national government—such as NGOs, private sector firms, civil society groups, foundations, and academic institutions—that participate in joint efforts across borders. They bring valuable expertise, resources, networks, and on-the-ground perspectives that can help implement projects, fill gaps in public capacity, drive innovation, and mobilize funding. This can expand what governments can achieve and improve service delivery, governance, and monitoring across borders. At the same time, their involvement can complicate cooperation when their goals diverge from public policy, or when accountability and legitimacy are unclear. Different agendas, funding streams, and regulatory environments can lead to coordination challenges, potential conflicts of interest, and uneven influence in decision-making. The strongest view recognizes both the benefits non-state actors bring and the potential governance and accountability hurdles they may create, making their role nuanced rather than simply helpful or harmful.